Two main gender groups. Gender and age groups

Androgyny - from the Greek andros (man) and gyne (woman) - conditions, in which a member of one sex exhibits characteristics of both sexes. The term is used for both biological/physical and psychological/behavioral characteristics.

Gender is a socio-biological characteristic, with the help of which the concepts of "man" and "woman" are defined. Due to the many complexities that arise in connection with differentiation, the concept of "sex" is often used to describe differences between men and women, identity, social roles, etc.

Gender identity is a concept used to describe the subjective feelings of being a woman or a man.

Gender role is a system of normative ideas about the behavior of men and women, formed in culture, expressed in the form of common stereotypes. More specifically, gender roles include culturally specific sets of personality traits and behaviors associated with a particular gender.

Masculinity is a state of an organism that reflects or exhibits the presence of the qualities and behavioral patterns of the male representatives of the species.

Misogyny- the misogynistic nature of masculine science of the positivist persuasion, manifested in the use of inadequate comparative research standards that initially put women in an unequal position with men.

Femininity is a state of the body that reflects or manifests the presence of the qualities and behavioral patterns of the female representatives of the species.

The process of gender socialization consists primarily in the assimilation of gender roles, i.e. culturally expected patterns of behavior for men and women. If the dominant socio-cultural norm dictates that a man is a “breadwinner, breadwinner and protector”, a woman is a “keeper of the hearth”, then from early childhood different styles of behavior will be socially reinforced in girls and boys. So, adults often praise a girl for caring, complaisance, tenderness and may not notice these qualities in a little boy at all. We place gender labels by telling the girl: "Stop fighting, you're not a boy!" or to a boy: “Why are you crying like a girl!” Education through "dolls and pistols" leads boys and girls to learn gender role norms - the idea of how women and men should behave in society. In most parts of the world, girls spend more time helping their parents around the house, caring for younger children or the elderly, and boys are more likely to be involved in non-custodial games with optional adult supervision.

This situation of gender asymmetry, which develops from the early stages of socialization, was most succinctly expressed by D. Myers: Gender socialization gives girls "roots" and boys - "wings" 1 .

The gender stereotype about the male “breadwinner” leads to the rooting in the public mind of the phrase: “for a man such a salary is small.” As a result of such approximate estimates, the average wage of women in Russia is 2/3 of the wage of men when performing work of equal value. The consequence of the gender stereotype about a woman - "guardian of the hearth" is the widespread opinion that politics and the sphere of social management are not women's business. Women make up 53% of the population of the Russian Federation, while 47% of all employed in the economy, however, the indicator of their representativeness among deputies of the State Duma of the Russian Federation is steadily declining: 1993-1995. - they were 13%, 1995-1999. - 10%, since December 1999 - 7.7%.

Age group classification

Age groups are one of the varieties of large social groups that are united according to age. Their commonality has an objective social basis - the specific place of each of the groups in the system of social division of labor. These groups do not have absolutely clear boundaries.

There are five main types of age communities:

teenagers - from 10 to 15 years old, leading activities - playing, studying at school;

young men - from 16 to 21 years old, leading activities - educational and professional and in the field of intimate and personal communication;

youth - from 22 to 30 years; leading activity - professional development and social self-determination;

people of mature age - from 30 to 60 years; leading activities - professional, social, family,

older people - over 60 years old, leading activities - solving the problems of pre-retirement and retirement periods, family and for many - maintaining professional and socio-political activity. Moreover, the tendency to preserve them in the modern conditions of Russia has increased.

Psychology of teenage community

The teenage group (children and teenagers up to 15 years old) is a period of rapid and uneven growth and development of the body, which leads to increased excitability of adolescents, rapid fatigue, and a sharp change in mood. One of the important developmental factors in adolescence is puberty, which results in sexual desire, often unconscious, and new experiences, thoughts and interests associated with it. The teenage period is characterized by an overestimated self-esteem of one's capabilities, which turns into a desire for super-independence and self-sufficiency, as well as often painful self-esteem - super-susceptibility. An overreaction is typical for adolescents when someone points out their immaturity. Orientation towards communication with peers is often accompanied by a hidden fear of being rejected by them. The evaluation of behavior by friends is becoming increasingly important.

Psychology of youthful community

The main constitutive moment of the social situation - the young man is on the verge of entering into an independent life. During this period, the individual constitutes himself as a representative of a certain generation. Turning to the future becomes the main focus of the individual, and the main problem is the choice of a profession, a further life path, self-determination, the acquisition of one's identity, which turns into an “affective center” of a life situation, on which the main activity and interests of a person are concentrated. An important role in this is played by the assessment of one's capabilities - the material conditions of the family, the level of training, the state of health, etc. The most important psychological prerequisites for successful social self-determination of the individual are the formed intellectual potential, adequate self-esteem.

A particularly significant youth group is students, who have a specific position, social status and have certain socio-psychological characteristics. It is in adolescence that people experience a strong need for help from society.

In the period of early maturity (30-40 years), their own way of life develops, social and professional roles are mastered, and they are included in all types of social activity. In the period of middle maturity (40-50 years), a person concentrates on the main goals and values of his life. Late maturity (50-60 years) is characterized by further improvement of social and special roles by occupation and at the same time their restructuring, the dominance of some of them and the weakening of others; changing the structure of family relationships and lifestyle. The development of social status occurs up to the pre-retirement age, when the peak of the greatest social achievements is usually noted - position in society, personal and professional authority.

Psychology of the age of the elderly

In the case of a positive passage of the previous age stages, old age is the achievement of wisdom, a sense of satisfaction, a fulfilled duty and the emergence of new interests, new social roles (for example, well-known - grandfathers, grandmothers, etc.), new manifestations of identification by including feasible, but useful for themselves and other tasks, in the solution of which age-related personal virtues provide higher achievements than young people who do not possess them can do. The facts of high creative activity and productivity of scientists, representatives of art and other professions in old age are widely known. Among the characteristic features of creative people are the breadth and diversity of their interests. The activity of creative individuals goes beyond their family and narrow professional interests and is most often expressed in their participation in pedagogical, socio-political and other activities. Therefore, it is possible to consider old age as the highest, peculiar level of personal integration.

Introduction

The problem of gender stereotyping is one of those that largely stimulated the development of women's and then gender studies. Justifying the position on the patriarchal nature of society and discrimination against women, advocates of women's equality are faced with the need to answer the question why this type of injustice does not cause protest, including among the majority of women themselves.

The explanation of this paradox included such concepts as prejudices, prejudices, stereotypes in feminist discourse. This essay will consider the main problems of gender stereotyping. What are the factors, mechanisms of gender stereotyping and what are the content, properties, functions of gender stereotypes, their impact on gender relations and social relations in general? Finally, is it possible to talk about the specific features of gender stereotypes?

It should be noted that an increased interest in the problem of gender stereotypes emerged in Western sociology in the 1970s and continues to this day. This interest is fueled, in addition to the rapid development of gender studies, also by the fact that the analysis of gender stereotypes has become a fertile field of research due to their obvious differences from ethnic stereotypes. Works on gender stereotypes in the works of Western, and above all American, feminist researchers have largely stimulated the further development of stereotype theory.

1. The concept and classification of gender stereotypes

The conceptual foundations for the study of gender stereotypes (basic definitions, analysis of the content of stereotypes and mechanisms of stereotyping) are offered in several dozen studies. Let's reveal the very concept of "gender stereotype", its various definitions, its main types, functions of gender stereotypes.

The fact that gender is one of the important categories of human social life is manifested in everyday reality. Representatives of one sex are presented with a special set of behavioral norms and expectations, significantly different from the requirements for the other sex. For this, special terms and words are used that describe boys and girls, men and women in different ways. All this is reflected in special forms of manifestation of public consciousness - stereotypes.

Traditionally, under stereotypeunderstand a certain scheme (cliché), on the basis of which information is perceived and evaluated. This scheme performs the function of generalizing a certain phenomenon, object or event, with its help a person acts or makes an assessment automatically, without thinking.

The concept of a social stereotype means a person's ability to generally evaluate the world around him and serves as the basis for his conclusions and non-critical conclusions. The positive function of social stereotypes is that, acting in conditions of lack of information, they allow you to quickly respond to ongoing changes and accelerate the process of cognition. However, the social stereotype is not always a reflection of objective reality. Often stereotypes have a conservative effect, forming erroneous knowledge and ideas in people, which, in turn, have a negative impact on the processes of interpersonal interaction. The generalization of the characteristics of individual individuals and their distribution to a group of people and phenomena is called stereotyping. According to E. Aronson, "to think stereotypically means to attribute identical characteristics to any person in a group, not paying attention to the real differences between members of this group."

We often encounter stereotypes of various kinds in everyday life when we characterize a particular person or group of people according to some “common” qualities and properties. For example, the judgment that "Norwegians are calm and slow, Italians are expressive and temperamental" is spreading due to prevailing opinions about the features of the "national character". Such judgments are called ethnic stereotypes. There are racial stereotypes, stereotypes about representatives of certain professional groups, bearers of a particular social status. For example, "upper class people are smarter than those from the lower class", or "all doctors are cynics" and others.

Our goal is to consider stereotypes that reflect generalized judgments about the qualities and properties inherent in men and women, and the differences between them. There is a very simple way to demonstrate such stereotypes. Think about what associations you have with the word "woman"? And now - with the word "man"? Surely, your answers are close to those received in the example below.

Within the framework of the project “Influence of social factors on the understanding of gender roles”, a group interview was conducted in order to identify opinions about male and female roles. Its participants are residents of Tashkent and Fergana, of both sexes, different ages and different levels of education. To the question “What associations do you have with the words “man” and “woman”?” the following responses were received. The word "woman" was most often associated with home, motherhood, household, raising children, etc. The concept of "man" in most cases was associated with the functions of supporting the family and financial source, the roles of father, warrior and protector, etc.

This example demonstrates the manifestation of the so-called gender stereotypes related to different perception and evaluation of the qualities and properties of people based on their gender.

Let's consider first gender stereotype concept. By definition, A.V. Merenkova, these are “sustainable programs of perception, goal-setting, as well as human behavior, depending on the norms and rules of life of representatives of a certain sex accepted in a given culture.”

Another definition: "Gender stereotypes are ideas about the differences between men and women that are stable for a given society in a given historical period."

We find another definition by I.S. Kletsina “Gender stereotypes are understood as standardized ideas about behavior patterns and character traits that correspond to the concepts of “male” and “female””.

So, the concept of "gender stereotypes" implies, firstly, the qualities and characteristics with which men and women are usually described. Secondly, gender stereotypes contain normative patterns of behavior traditionally attributed to males or females. Thirdly, gender stereotypes reflect generalized opinions, judgments, ideas of people about how men and women differ from each other. And finally, fourthly, gender stereotypes depend on the cultural context and the environment in which they find their application.

social behavior gender life activity

2. Main gender groups of stereotypes

All gender stereotypes can be divided into three groups:

First -stereotypes of masculinity / femininity (or femininity). In other words, they are called stereotypes. masculinity / femininity. Let us first consider what the concepts of masculinity (masculinity) and femininity (femininity) mean. (Further on, these two pairs of concepts are used in the text as synonymous: masculinity - masculinity, femininity - femininity). Based on the analysis of the meaning of the term "masculinity", given by I.S. Kohn, one can describe the meanings attached to the concepts of femininity and masculinity as follows:

The concepts of masculinity and femininity denote mental and behavioral properties and traits that are “objectively inherent” (in the words of I. Kohn) to men (masculinity) or women (femininity).

The concepts of masculinity and femininity contain various social representations, opinions, attitudes, etc. about what men and women are, and what qualities are attributed to them.

The concepts of masculinity and femininity reflect the normative standards of the ideal man and ideal woman.

Thus, gender stereotypes of the first group can be defined as stereotypes that characterize men and women with the help of certain personal qualities and socio-psychological properties, and which reflect ideas about masculinity and femininity. For example, such qualities as passivity, dependence, emotionality, conformity, etc. are usually attributed to women, and to men - activity, independence, competence, aggressiveness, etc. As we can see, the qualities of masculinity and femininity have polar poles: activity - passivity, strength - weakness. According to the study by N.A. Nechaeva, the traditional ideal of a woman includes such properties as fidelity, devotion, modesty, gentleness, tenderness, tolerance.

Second groupgender stereotypes is associated with the consolidation of certain social roles in the family, professional and other spheres. Women, as a rule, are assigned family roles (mothers, mistresses, wives) as the main ones, and professional roles for men. As I.S. Kletsina notes, “men are usually evaluated by professional success, and women by the presence of a family and children.”

Within a separate sphere (for example, family), the set of roles assigned to a man and a woman is different. In the aforementioned study “The influence of social factors on the understanding of gender roles”, 300 people from 18 to 60 years old were interviewed, and the following differentiation was revealed in the distribution of family responsibilities between spouses. Thus, the roles associated with cleaning the house, cooking, washing and ironing linen, and washing dishes were noted as purely “female”. The male functions in the family, according to the survey participants, are the functions of earning money, repairing the house, and taking out the trash. More than 90% of all respondents agreed with the statements “The main calling of a woman is to be a good wife and mother” and “A man is the main breadwinner and head of the family”, reflecting traditional ideas about the role of a man and a woman in a family. The statements of the participants in the group interviews of the same study showed that women are most often assigned the role of the guardian of the family hearth, which, according to the respondents, “ensures the integrity of the family” and “maintains a favorable atmosphere in the house.” The man, on the other hand, plays the role of a “family support”, and this role is rather of a guiding nature: a man in the family is engaged in “setting strategic goals”, “manages”, “indicates”, and, in general, is a “role model”. At the same time, leisure roles are much more often attributed to men than to women (talking with friends over a glass of beer, relaxing on the couch, watching TV and newspapers, fishing, football, etc.). This was also confirmed by the results of a study of school textbooks, which showed that male characters are portrayed in recreational situations significantly more often than female characters.

Third groupgender stereotyping reflects the differences between men and women in certain types of work. Thus, men are assigned occupations and professions in the instrumental sphere of activity, which, as a rule, has a creative or constructive character, and women - in the expressive sphere, which is distinguished by a performing or service character. Therefore, the opinion about the existence of so-called "male" and "female" professions is widespread.

According to UNESCO, the stereotypical list of male occupations includes the professions of an architect, driver, engineer, mechanic, researcher, etc., and women's librarian, educator, teacher, telephone operator, secretary, etc. According to the participants in the group interviews of my study, among the " male” professions includes a large set of specialties in industrial, technical, construction, military, agricultural and other fields. At the same time, women are traditionally given employment in the areas of education (teacher, educator), medicine (doctor, nurse, midwife), service (salesman, maid, waitress). In the scientific field, the employment of men is associated with natural, precise, public areas, and women, mainly, with the humanities.

Along with such a "horizontal" division of labor spheres into men's and women's, there is also a vertical division, expressed in the fact that the overwhelming majority of leadership positions are occupied by men, and women's positions are of a subordinate nature.

The above classification of gender stereotypes is not exhaustive and, having a rather arbitrary character, is undertaken for ease of analysis. Of these groups of gender stereotypes, the most common and universal are stereotypes of femininity/masculinity. Stereotypes of the second and third groups are of a more private nature, and cover, in most cases, the family or professional spheres. At the same time, the described three groups of gender stereotypes are closely interconnected. Apparently, other types of gender stereotypes can be distinguished using various bases for their classification.

3. Functions of gender stereotypes

Any stereotypes perform certain functions. Let us dwell in more detail on the functions of gender stereotypes. So, gender stereotypes implement the following main functions:

explanatory function,

regulatory function,

differentiating function,

relay function,

protective or justifying function.

The explanatory function - the simplest of all listed, is used to interpret the behavior of a man or woman using common gender stereotypes about male and female qualities.

The regulatory function is associated with the differences observed in the behavior of people of different sexes. For example, foreign researchers have experimentally found that people of different sexes behave differently when crossing the road to a red light. Thus, women were less likely to break the rules while on the road alone, but more often they did it after other violators. This behavior was explained by the fact that women tend to be more "disciplined pedestrians", so they are less likely to break traffic rules. However, as more "conformal", i.e. subject to pressure from the group, they may break the rules after someone else. Thus, stereotypically attributed qualities (in the described case, discipline and conformity) act as a kind of regulators of behavior.

The differentiating function is the common function of all social stereotypes. It minimizes differences between members of the same group and maximizes differences between members of different groups. If men and women are considered as two social groups with different status positions, then usually men are described as a high-status group, and women as a low-status group.

Naturally, in this case, the differences between the two groups increase. Thus, business success and competence are usually associated with high-status men, while low-status women are endowed with the qualities of kindness, understanding, and humanity. However, according to some Western authors, “all the positive features of the female stereotype (warmth, emotional support, compliance, etc.) are only typical compensation for the lack of achievements in the “power position””17. Thus, the differentiation of men and women often leads to a polarization of the traits attributed to them (for example, the strength of men - the weakness of women). In everyday life, the differentiating function of gender stereotypes is clearly seen in such "products" of folk art as anecdotes, jokes about men and women, grotesquely emphasizing certain differences between the sexes.

They focus on the negative qualities of members of the opposite sex and thus create internal solidarity among same-sex groups.

The relay function reflects the role of institutions and agents of socialization - family, school, peers, literature, art, mass media, etc. - in the formation, transmission (transmission), dissemination and consolidation of sex-role stereotypes. Through the listed social institutions, society makes certain expectations for the individual about how to be and what to do in order to comply with normative ideas about their gender. With the help of such expectations-prescriptions, in essence, the "construction of the sex" of a person takes place. The role of socialization agents in translating gender stereotypes is considered in detail in the topics “Gender Aspects in the Sphere of Education”, “Gender and the Family”.

The protective or justifying function, according to some researchers, is one of the most negative functions of gender stereotypes, associated with an attempt to "justify and protect the existing state of affairs, including the actual inequality between the sexes." With its help, the unequal position of men and women in the family and society can be justified. So, for example, according to E. Aronson, it is quite convenient to perceive women as “biologically more predisposed to housework, if a society in which the dominant role belongs to men wishes to continue to keep women tied to a vacuum cleaner.”

In the same way, with the help of prevailing stereotypes about the supposedly “natural qualities” of men and women, manifestations of domestic violence and double standards in relation to representatives of different sexes can be explained (and, in fact, justified).

Thus, gender stereotypes perform a number of functions related to the need to explain certain differences between the sexes, represent these differences, and justify their existence. Being the consequences of categorization (generalization), gender stereotypes form our expectations regarding the behavior of men and women.

The main directions in the study of gender stereotypes.

Many foreign studies have been devoted to the study of gender stereotypes. At first, they were aimed at studying the very phenomenon of stereotyping, the forms of manifestation of stereotypes. Later, these studies delved into the search for mechanisms of functioning and explanatory schemes on the basis of which this process takes place.

The first studies in this area, carried out in the 1950s, revealed the most typical representations of men and women about each other. Thus, the results of the studies showed that a positive male image is usually described in terms of competence, activity and rationality, and a female image is usually described in terms of sociability, warmth and emotional support. In this case, negative male qualities are rudeness, authoritarianism, and in women - passivity, excessive emotionality, etc. These studies, as a rule, were limited to stating the existence of certain gender stereotypes without any explanation of the reasons for this phenomenon.

Subsequent research in the 1970s focused on the study of stereotypes regarding the abilities of men and women, manifested in various areas of professional activity. In the experiments, it was recorded that the subjects rate the abilities of men higher than the abilities of women. Then attempts were made to explain the identified stereotypes in accordance with the theory of attribution.

Attribution theory is a theory about how people explain the behavior of others, whether they attribute the cause of actions to a person's internal dispositions (enduring traits, motives, attitudes) or to external situations. According to this theory, success or failure in the performance of any activity is usually associated with two types of factors: stable (expected) or unstable (random) factors. In one experiment conducted by Kei Do and Tim Emsweiler, students of both sexes described a man or woman who achieved good results. Explaining the reasons for the success of the man, students attributed his achievements to personal abilities, while the entire group attributed the success of the woman to luck and luck. Thus, men's professional success was most often associated with more stable factors (for example, their qualities or abilities), since men's competence is perceived as an expected factor corresponding to a "male" quality - the desire for achievement. At the same time, the success of women was explained more by chance (for example, luck or chance) than by stable factors.

In a study by Shirley Feldman-Summers and Sarah Kiesler, a successful female doctor was perceived by male subjects as less competent, but she was also credited with high achievement motivation. That is, according to the participants of the experiment, the woman doctor achieved success not due to her personal abilities, but due to the fact that she strongly desired success. The negative effects of gender stereotyping have been demonstrated in a study by Kay Do and Janet Taylor. In their experiment, the subjects listened to a recording of an interview with students of both sexes for a prestigious scholarship. At the same time, the subjects rated the successfully answering man as more competent than the woman who answered just as successfully. However, the man who gave weak answers was rated lower by the same group in comparison with the same weak applicant.

Thus, the conducted studies have shown the influence of gender stereotypes on the assessment of people's abilities. Moreover, their negative impact affects the assessment of both female and male abilities. Among equally successful representatives of both sexes, competence is recognized in men, and the success of a woman is associated with a high level of motivation or just luck, but not with her abilities. Moreover, if a woman fails, she is treated more condescendingly than a man who has not achieved success. The rigidity of gender stereotypes requires men to be successful, while business success is not at all necessary for a woman. A number of more recent studies have examined the accuracy of gender stereotypes. The main question that they posed was how true are gender stereotypes, do they fairly objectively reflect reality?

Studies conducted by a number of scientists in the 1980s and 1890s confirmed the already established fact that the image of a man is most often associated with instrumental features, while expressive features are attributed to women. Therefore, although women with their warmth and openness are described quite positively, they are presented as less intellectually competent and more passive. Concern by some researchers that such findings lead to discrimination against women, for example in the world of work, has spurred a series of studies on the accuracy of gender stereotypes.

The questions of interest to researchers in this regard are the following. Are stereotypes an accurate reflection of reality? Do they not transfer the differences revealed in the minority to the majority and thus distort the real state of affairs? The fear of researchers to declare stereotypes reflecting reality, that is, true, was at that time due to the fact that this would provide an opportunity for various kinds of prejudices and discrimination not only by gender, but also by skin color, nationality, etc.

Most of the studies carried out in this direction revealed the inaccuracy of gender stereotypes. At the same time, some data indicated that in gender stereotypes the differences between men and women are overestimated, while others - that they are underestimated. Sylvia Breuer, in studying stereotypes regarding the so-called "male" and "female" academic disciplines at the university, used as one of the indicators of accuracy the real marks of students in various disciplines, that is, their performance indicators. The results of her research showed that the success of female students is most often underestimated, especially in those sciences that are traditionally considered male (for example, in mathematics), despite the high marks they receive in these subjects in reality.

According to a cross-cultural study of gender stereotypes (1982), conducted in the countries of Europe, Asia, Africa, America, the stereotype of a man was described as more active and strong than women in all these countries. However, in a later re-study (1990), the same authors found that the self-images of boys and girls did not always coincide with the indicated stereotypes, and even if they did, the magnitude of this correspondence was very small.

Since the 1990s, researchers have been interested in the study of gender stereotypes in the media, as well as in the conduct of gender expertise of legislation, school and children's literature. Similar studies are described in the topics "Gender and Media", "Practical Aspects of Gender Pedagogy". The listed directions in the study of gender stereotypes do not cover all the variety of studies conducted in this area. They only give an idea of the complexity and versatility of the phenomenon under study. Studying generalized judgments about men and women, the presented studies focus on certain aspects of gender stereotypes, their functions, manifestation features, compliance or non-correspondence with reality, etc., and much less often - on explaining the reasons for their appearance and persistence of existence. One such explanation is the assimilation of gender stereotypes in the process of gender socialization.

In Kazakhstan, the number of studies in this area is negligible, since the development of tender studies in Kazakhstan began in the mid-90s. For example, Usacheva N.A (Karaganda) explores the status of a woman, fate and her image in world culture, Nurtazina N. developed a teaching kit for students of higher educational institutions on the course "Introduction to the theory of gender" - "Fundamentals of gender education", I wanted to note the works of Rezvushkina T. “Using the method of semantic differential in the study of gender stereotypes” - and Zenkova T.V. “Gender stereotyping on the pages of textbooks” (Pavlodar), research is being conducted in different directions: Toktybaeva K. “Proverbs and sayings of the peoples of the world through the prism of gender” , Nurzhanova Z.M. "Non-verbal means of communication: gender aspect", - Nurseitova Kh.Kh. The Specificity of the Communicative Behavior of Women Politicians of Kazakhstan in Political Discourse (Based on Interviews with the Mass Media), Zhumagulova B.S. and Toktarova T.Zh.” Some Aspects of Gender Linguistics. etc. There are no serious works on gender stereotypes in Kazakhstan yet.

4. Linguistic study of gender stereotypes

In Russian science, the study of gender stereotypes began relatively recently. Despite the considerable number of very valuable works that address this topic, there are no fundamental works that would consider both the universal mechanisms of gender stereotyping and the specifics of the functioning of gender stereotypes in Russian society.

.1 Reflection of gender stereotypes in the phraseology of the Russian language

Yu. D. Apresyan proposed a scheme for describing a naive picture of a person, reflected in the language: A person is conceived in the Russian language picture of the world ... first of all, as a dynamic, active being. He performs three different types of actions - physical, intellectual and verbal. On the other hand, certain states are characteristic of it - perception, desires, knowledge, opinions, emotions, etc. finally, it reacts in a certain way to external or internal influences (Apresyan, 1995, v.2, p.352). According to Apresyan, the main human systems can be summarized in the following scheme (ibid., pp. 355-356):

) physical perception (sight, hearing, etc.);

) physiological states (hunger, thirst, etc.);

) physiological reactions to external or internal influences (pallor, cold, heat, etc.);

) physical actions and activities (work, walk, draw, etc.);

) emotions (to be afraid, to rejoice, to love, etc.);

) speech (to speak, advise, complain, praise, scold, etc.).

In our opinion, this scheme is also applicable to the analysis of femininity and masculinity and makes it possible to trace which of the above nodes schemes are more associated with masculinity, and which - with femininity.

Let us now consider the phraseological material from the position of Yu. D. Apresyan's scheme. The Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language, edited by A. I. Molotkov (1986), containing more than 4,000 dictionary entries, became the basis for the analysis. Some of the analyzed units remained outside its scope. For the sake of completeness of the description (although, of course, we do not pretend to be exhaustive), a section of the monograph by V. N. Teliya (1996), devoted to the reflection of the cultural concept woman in Russian phraseology, was also involved. The internal form of phraseological units (PU) is considered, that is, their figurative motivation, the importance of which is pointed out by many authors (Teliya, 1996; Stepanov, 1997; Baranov, Dobrovolsky, 1998).

The analyzed material showed the following:

) most of the phraseological units do not differ by gender, it reflects not the nomination of persons, but the nomination of actions (get under the arm). A significant part of them is based on a bodily metaphor (according to Lakoff) - to get up on the left foot, get under the arm, lay down the head, etc. That is, their internal form is applicable to all persons, regardless of gender. All people can sing praises, scratch their tongues, not go out with a snout, which is also shown by the contextual examples contained in the dictionary;

) some phraseological units apply only to men: a pea jester, a knight without fear and reproach, a robber from the high road, a mouse stallion.

The same group includes units related to male or female referents, but having specific prototypes: Methuselah years, Cain's seal - in this case, biblical or literary and historical: Demyanov's ear, Mamai passed, Malanin's wedding.

) Units that have only female referents due to the internal form, referring to the peculiarities of women's life: to give a hand and a heart, a friend of life, a waist in a glass. The same group includes phraseological units to be resolved from the burden, on demolition, which nevertheless can be applied to men: Have you defended yourself? - No, but already on demolition

) A group that, by its internal form, can be correlated with male activity, but does not exclude a female referent: saber-rattling, throwing down a glove, with an open visor. A characteristic example from the dictionary (p. 188): And I knew this before the wedding, I knew that with him I would be a free Cossack - Turgenev, Spring Waters.

) a group where there are paired correspondences: a straw widow - a straw widower, in the costume of Adam - in the costume of Eve or In the costume of Adam and Eve.

) a group where the internal form refers to the female referent, but the expression itself is applicable to all persons: a market woman, a muslin young lady, grandmother's tales, but: the bride of Christ

In the last group, one can observe mostly negative connotations of the names of women, which allows us to speak about gender asymmetries. However, expressions such as damn / old pepper in relation to a woman are correlated with the masculine expression old fart (absent from the dictionary, but well known to everyone). In general, the issue of a predominantly negative connotation in nominations with female referents seems to be somewhat controversial. Single examples in this respect are not indicative. Large data arrays should be considered, and considered not in isolation, but in comparison with male nominations. No significant asymmetry was found in the material of the studied dictionary. Along with the expressions damn pepper, blue stocking, muslin lady, old maid, ruffle skirts, bazaar woman, there are also a friend / life partner and a number of neutral expressions. Male names also contain both positively and negatively connoted units: a robber from a high road, a birch stump, Ivan, who does not remember kinship, a booby of the king of heaven, a jester, a foal breed (priests) - a strong sex, a small master of golden hands.

The number of negatively connoted units is higher in both the male and female groups. This fact should be correlated not with the gender of the referent, but with the general pattern of phraseology: in general, there are more negatively connoted units throughout the entire phraseological field. In phraseological opposition positive /negative the last member of the opposition is marked, that is, the presence of something positive is considered as a norm and therefore is mentioned much less frequently.

In addition, as already mentioned, a number of units are equally applicable to both men and women: a stout club, a lump out of the blue, native blood.

Signs of androcentricity include the use of negatively connoted units with a female internal form for naming men: market woman - and positively connoted units with a male internal form: your boyfriend - in relation to women. However, there are few such uses.

In group 4) gender asymmetry is manifested in the metaphorization of typically male activities: saber-rattling, keeping gunpowder dry.

We add that V. N. Teliya (1996) defines a number of basic metaphors for the concept woman in Russian culture:

courageous woman, it is uncharacteristic for the Russian everyday consciousness to perceive a woman as the weaker sex and its opposition stronger sex (p. 263);

scandalous creature: market woman;

androcentric gastronomic metaphor: rich, appetizing woman;

condemnation of too free behavior of a woman: to walk hands, hang around her neck, ruffle skirts. V. N. Telia considers the idiom to be hung around the neck as exclusively feminine. A different point of view is presented in the FRS, where there is an example of use in relation to a male referent, the low value of the female mind and female creativity: women's literature, ladies' novel; Along with this, V.N. Teliya also notes positive features related to such hypostases of a woman as a bride, Faithful friend and virtuous mother (p. 268).

In general, we are of the opinion that the phraseological dictionary under consideration represents very scarce material, which is associated with:

) the presence in it, basically, of the nomination of not persons, but of actions characteristic of all people and often based on body metaphor ;

) the predominance of negative appraisal in phraseology, associated not with the gender factor, but with the peculiarity of human conceptualization of reality, when good is the norm and is not always fixed in the language, but bad marked and reflected in the language more often as a sign of deviation from the ideal good . Therefore, speaking conditionally to a certain extent, we can conclude that they are not opposed to bad women good men , A bad good within the framework of the universal (Compare Telia, 1996; Arutyunova, 1987).

The dictionary material did not show significant gender asymmetry. Comparing it with Yu. D. Apresyan's description scheme, it was found that physiological reactions and states are almost not represented. Most of the gender-relevant phraseological units represent assessments of moral qualities and behavioral norms, as well as emotional assessment, and partly also activity.

4.2 Reflection of gender stereotypes in the paremiological field

Paremiology was chosen as the subject of research not by chance - it is at the intersection of phraseology and folklore, which makes the study of proverbs and sayings very significant from the standpoint of the modern linguoculturological approach. The paremiological fund of the Russian language is an important source of interpretation, since most proverbs are prescriptions-stereotypes of national self-consciousness, giving a fairly wide scope for choice for the purpose of self-identification (Telia, 1996, p. 240). Paremiology is indicative from the point of view of cultural stereotypes fixed in the language. The presence of different possibilities for self-identification is undeniable, but the analysis of a large number of units still allows us to draw a conclusion about the dominant trends and assessments. To identify such trends, we conducted a continuous sample from the Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language by V. Dahl (reprint edition 1978). The dictionary contains about 30 thousand proverbs and sayings. This rather large array allows reasonable conclusions to be drawn.

The choice of the dictionary is also not accidental, since this lexicographical work is a mirror of Russian cultural stereotypes. At the same time, for the purposes of the work, it is not essential how frequent this or that proverb or saying is, since the focus is on the cumulative function of the language, thanks to which it is possible to observe historically established GS. V. Dahl's dictionary was published in 1863-1866, and the material contained in it is even older and reflects mainly the peasant's view of the world. The peasantry was, however, the most numerous social group in Russia, which makes the study of the dictionary justified. Since V. Dahl contains a chronologically removed section of the language, some modern trends in the development of the GS will also be outlined below.

Principles of selection and classification of material: 1) units with gender specificity were considered, that is, those related to the social aspects of the interaction between men and women. Proverbs like C don’t fight the strong, don’t sue the rich are not included in the scope of the study, although they can be considered as an expression of androcentrism in the sense that judgments of a universal nature, where gender does not matter, still appear mainly men; 2) within the framework of the material under consideration, the classification is hampered by the semantic versatility of proverbs and sayings. So, the proverb Beauty takes a closer look, but cabbage soup does not sip can be attributed to at least two subgroups - Appearance And Thrift . The problem of ambiguous classification had to be faced in a large number of cases. Therefore, a specific semantic area can be outlined quite clearly only at a high level of generalization: the female vision of the world is the male vision of the world. Within each of these areas, different semantic groups are seen, but they cannot be considered definitive.

As one of the possible ones, we propose the following scheme, considering proverbs also from the standpoint of their internal form. Of the total, about 2,000 units can be called gender-relevant; most of them refer to women: a woman, wife, girl, bride, mother-in-law, mother-in-law, mother, etc. At the same time, a significant part of proverbs and sayings of the dictionary does not reflect gender aspects in any way, referring to all people regardless of their gender, for example, you cannot jump above your head. Thus, the gender factor does not occupy a leading position in the general array of Russian proverbs and sayings. When analyzing gender-based units, it was established:

In addition, two phenomena are clearly expressed in the general array of research material: androcentricity, that is, a reflection of a male perspective and a reflection of a female worldview.

By belonging to the semantic areas, the following groups can be distinguished: matrimony - 683 units. (within this group, a number of smaller subgroups can also be distinguished: everyday life, economic activity, interdependence of husband and wife, husband's dominance, domestic violence, marriage is a responsible matter, evil and good wives, etc.)

Girl, bride - 285

Motherhood - 117 (introspective view and view from outside )

Qualities of a female personality - 297 (character, mind, appearance, housekeeping)

Social roles - 175 (mother, wife, bride, mother-in-law, grandmother (midwife), matchmaker, widow, etc.)

Gender-colored, but not directly related to the interaction of the sexes, phraseological units: Who loves the priest, who loves the priest, and who loves the priest's daughter - 52

existential opposition of men and women (that is, not related to social roles, but related directly to gender) - 10

Introspective female picture of the world - 242

A number of smaller groups (see Kirilina, 1997b; Kirilina, 1998b).

In all groups, except for the last and partly the group related to motherhood, the androcentric view dominates, that is, a reflection of the male perspective. Let us now consider these groups.

.3 Androcentricity (male picture of the world)

A man as an addresser or addressee dominates quantitatively: proverbs and sayings reflect a predominantly male picture of the world and male power in it.

Take the first daughter from the family, the second - from the sister.

Wife is not glass (can be beaten)

The size of the male space-reality is much larger than the female. The woman acts mainly as an object.

God will take away the woman, so the girl will give the incomplete belonging of the woman to the category Human (18 units).

A chicken is not a bird, a woman is not a person

Seven women have half a goat's soul

We can also note the prescriptive nature of statements addressed to a woman.

Don't bother when there's nothing in the oven

In addition, there is opposition male - female with connotations right - wrong (left).

The husband plows and the wife dances

Do not sing to a chicken as a rooster, do not be a man to a woman

In this regard, the man is assigned responsibility for the behavior of the woman in accordance with the model: the husband performs an act n, the wife performs an act N, where n and N are some negative actions, and N is more intense than n:

You are a span from your wife, and she is a fathom from you

Husband for a glass, wife for a glass

However, this model also implies the rules of behavior for a man, since the wife's negative actions are made under the influence of a bad example set by her husband. It declares not only the husband's right to rule, but also his responsibility.

In the context of quantitatively large groups ( matrimony ) moral precepts are addressed not only to women. A large number of units emphasizes the responsibility of the husband and the important role of the wife in the family. Although a woman in several proverbs appears as not quite a man, we found similar statements about men: not married - not a man; single - half a person. Moral precepts are also addressed not only to women, but to men too. Some, relatively speaking, code of rules for a man is found, in which male immorality, sexual promiscuity are severely condemned: Who has prayer and fasting on his mind, but he has a woman's tail. We believe, in addition, that proverbs of this type can be very conditionally classified as androcentric, since they do not define a male or female perspective. Such proverbs are not isolated and reflect, in our opinion, a universal perspective without distinction of gender: You don’t mow hay for the army, you don’t give birth to the death of children. Of course, the negative image of a woman is present in the picture of the world drawn by Russian paremiology. But there are both female and universal perspectives in it, which somewhat balances androcentricity. Marriage, the family are not considered as an isolated part of society, but in close interaction with other members of the genus. Hence - the wide representation of the parents of husband and wife, grandparents, godfather and godfather, matchmaker. In general, the life of a woman is presented in detail and is not limited to activities in the household (although this area is very representative). A large number of proverbs thematize the extra-domestic spheres of a woman's activity - of course, within the limits acceptable for that time: medicine, obstetrics, divination, as evidenced by the second meaning of the word grandmother (midwife, midwife), as well as the verb formed from it babit (provide childbirth).

It reflects not only the dependence of the wife on her husband, but also the opposite: A man without a woman is more than an orphan. This is especially true for elderly spouses: Grandfather would crumble if his grandmother did not gird him; Grandma can’t, grandfather hasn’t gnawed bones for seven years.

In general, the old woman and the widow have an important place. Widowhood gave women certain privileges, legal rights if they had children. This was reflected in the language in the form of a combination of a mother widow, as well as a number of words and phrases built on the principle of transfer: mother, mother wolf.

Against the background of the general picture, we see a group of proverbs that is not very representative, which emphasizes a kind of existential opposition of the sexes, that is, the opposition of men and women without regard to their social functions of wives, husbands, etc. This group is dominated by androcentrism.

At the same time, there is a small group of proverbs (17) that reflect family violence (which is also noted by K. Tafel (Tafel, 1997). Sometimes it takes the form of mutual assault: I am her stick, and she is me with a rolling pin, which, in addition to the sad fact of home violence also indicates that a woman is not regarded as a weak being. The physical weakness of a woman is practically not reflected in the proverbs we studied. On the contrary, women show their will and determination despite the attempts of men not to give them this will: With the grip of a woman, even for a bear.

The woman's age plays an important role: there is a significant number of phraseological units representing a young girl, especially in the role of a bride. Here, in some cases, there is a view of a woman as a sexual object. This group of proverbs is one of the most numerous.

.4 Women's picture of the world

The most clear neutralizing trend is the presence in Russian paremiology of a clearly distinguishable female voice (about 15% of our sample), reflecting the life and view of a woman on the world, the conditions and opportunities for her socialization. In the female picture of the world, the following semantic areas are distinguished (the number of units is indicated in brackets):

Marriage (91).

Family relations (25).

Motherhood, childbearing and education (31).

Typical activity and sense of self (26).

The manifestation of one's will (18).

The area that we called the pseudo-female voice, or the imitation of female speech, which in fact also reflects the androcentricity of the language and the stereotypical representation of a woman as an irrational, absurd, short-sighted and generally inferior being (16 units).

Sell, husband, a horse and a cow, buy a new one for your wife.

In what I go to church, in that I mix kvass

In groups 1-6, there are correspondences to general ideas about female speech: relation to the emotional sphere, frequent use of diminutive forms (Homberger, 1993; Zemskaya, Kitaigorodskaya, Rozanova, 1993). Fatality and insecurity dominate. Quantitatively, the subgroup Marriage surpasses all others. Noteworthy is the predominance in the syntax of the proverbs included in this subgroup of subordinate concessions, expressing a willingness to put up with life's troubles in the name of partial well-being:

Though a bit, but full.

Though for a bald man, but close.

Although for a beggar, yes in Tatishchevo.

The general picture of marriage is often painted in minor tones: it is perceived as a necessity and the acquisition of at least the minimum security that women outside of marriage do not have:

When you become a widow, then you remember your husband.

With a husband you need it, without a husband it’s even worse, and a widow and an orphan even howl like a wolf.

Positively connoted proverbs are much less. They emphasize the essential side for women - security:

Even though the hubby is bad, I’ll fall for him - I’m not afraid of anyone!

God bless my husband far and wide, and without him I’m not over the threshold.

In this subgroup, a number of proverbs are also noted that have the intention of warning or recommendation:

Get married, look at both.

It is good to look at the beautiful, but it is easy to live with the smart.

In a subgroup Love, affection the absolute necessity of having a loved one is stated ( cute ). Only in a number of cases - It is good to live with a sweetheart in love - it is possible to assume that we are talking about marriage. In proverbs of this type, readiness for self-sacrifice dominates - For the sake of a sweetheart, you don’t feel sorry for yourself; For the sweet and for myself I will give up - and the fortress of emotional bonds - The dear will be forgotten, so I will remember; Not sweet and free light, when there is no dear.

In the group of proverbs related to family relations, a woman performs in several social roles: mother, sister, daughter, sister-in-law, mother-in-law, mother-in-law, grandmother / grandmother, godfather. V. N. Teliya proposes to consider the concept woman / woman , and all other concepts, including family status, are specific (V. N. Telia, 1996, p. 261). In our opinion, in the picture of the world created by Russian paremiology, there are two concepts that are not hierarchical in relation to each other - woman / woman And mother .

Concept woman / woman , in a large number of cases it is connoted negatively and is close to the semantic field evil, danger .

This applies in particular to the words baba/wife.

So, the wife is more often evil than kind (respectively 61 and 31 units):

An evil wife will drive you crazy

All the more sinister evil wife

units allow the possibility of the existence of good and evil wives:

A good wife is fun, and a thin one is an evil potion

Androcentric I language endows a woman with a number of prototypical features that create a negative stereotype:

Weak and illogical mind and infantilism in general, categorization of not fully capable persons:

Women's minds are ruining houses

The hair is long and the mind is short

And the woman dares that the child shakes.

About a matter that requires reason, they say It's not for you to shake the spindle, (the concept is implied women's work does not require the mind ).

We found 35 proverbs stating the insufficiency of the female mind; 19 proverbs give a positive assessment. Nonsense and eccentricity as a result of illogicality, that is, mental insufficiency, ascertain 66 units. Therefore, despite the presence of statements that highly appreciate the female mind (Kum speaks at random, and Kuma - take it to mind; The female mind is better than any thoughts), the prototypical feature is still the limitation of the female intellect. This feature is shown by V. N. Teliya on the material of phraseological combinations of the Russian language (Teliya, 1996, p. 267). In Russian paremiology, this is not just a statement of fact, but often a prescription: the female mind, even if it exists, is an atypical phenomenon, and, apparently, undesirable:

Clever to take - will not let you say a word.

Take a literate woman, she will sort out the holidays

Absurd and unpredictable disposition:

I would drive straight, but my wife is stubborn.

Where there are two women, there is a judge (fight), where there are three - there is sodom.

Danger, deceit:

Do not trust your wife in the courtyard, but the horse on the road

The wife indulges, dashingly plotting.

Loquacity.

Sweeps with his tongue, that with bobbins.

Women have only courts and ranks.

In this regard, little value is attributed to the process of female speaking. It is noteworthy that the combination of the words woman / woman and speak is practically never found. Women lie, sweep their tongues, rave, talk, lie, gossip:

The woman could not stand it, she lied!

The godfather went to blow through the city

Women and women's activities are opposed to men and men's activities as right and wrong. Opposition right - left How right and wrong , norm and deviation , characteristic of many cultures, is clearly seen in Russian paremiology. The main seme here is absurdity, the irregularity of female behavior:

The husband is at the door, and the wife is in Tver.

The muzhik's mind says: it is necessary; the woman's mind says: I want.

It is noteworthy that the proverbs of this group in most cases express a completely logical intention in the first part and an unsuccessful result in the second:

A woman got along in Ladoga, but ended up in Tikhvin

There is also a model: man/husband performs action A, woman/wife performs action B,Where A -important or difficult task B -

Summarizing the consideration of the material, we can conclude the following:

Androcentricity in Russian paremiology takes place. It is most clearly expressed in proverbs and sayings, reflecting the male view of the world and in the supremacy of men. However, the image of a woman on the axiological scale is not always negatively connoted. One can speak more of a trend than of an unambiguously negative attitude. Negative prescription stereotypes in Russian paremiology are offered for the concept wife/woman , not for the concept mother . A clear rejection takes place only in relation to the process of female speaking. It has almost exclusively negative connotations.

Availability female voice and women's worldview in the picture of the world created by Russian paremiology is undeniable. In our opinion, the picture of the world reflected by the female language I conveys not natural, immanent areas of reality for a woman, but shows in which areas of public life and social institutions the participation of a woman was allowed and to what extent. Female voice , which is dominated by sadness, the choice of the lesser of two evils, suffering, but also emotionality, humanity, only emphasizes the inconvenience for women of this forced isolation in the narrow sphere of social restrictions. At the same time, there is decisiveness, a manifestation of one's will.

The established facts allow us to conclude that the thesis of feminist linguistics about the androcentricity of any language functioning in a patriarchal or post-patriarchal society is confirmed by the material of the Russian language in terms of its paremiology. However Female voice in it, along with the universal human perspective, it is also not marginal and testifies to a certain independence of women even in such a long period. This fact is also confirmed by historical material (Pushkareva, 1989; Man in the family circle, 1996; Mikhnevich, 1990/1895). So, Mikhnevich shows that even in the period of the Terem culture a peasant woman and, in general, a woman of the lowest social stratum in Rus' was never a recluse in a tower and lived in completely different living conditions than those, semi-monastic and semi-harem, in which a Moscow noblewoman or a well-groomed merchant's wife was placed living room hundred (S.6). Considering the activity of women in the 18th century, Mikhnevich notes their activities as a hostess and landowner, writer and scientist, artist, philanthropist and religious hermit. His conclusions on linguistic material are confirmed by the study of Demicheva (1996).

Conclusion

So, stereotypes are some ideas about groups, people, events that may contain the truth, or may be incorrect and overly generalized. On the one hand, they simplify the picture of the world and help to quickly process incoming information, on the other hand, they can distort reality and lead to erroneous generalizations.

What are the consequences of uncritical assimilation and transmission of gender stereotypes? We can observe the negative impact of gender stereotypes in the family sphere, when the rigidity of social requirements regarding gender roles ascribes to women the family, raising children and housekeeping and hinders their professional self-realization. The influence of gender stereotypes in the learning process at school and other educational institutions does not go unnoticed. The negative consequences in this case are to create obstacles to the development of the internal potential that each individual is endowed with. Belonging to a certain gender, and not internal motivation, here becomes decisive for the activation and development of certain qualities. At the macro level, the negative manifestation of gender stereotypes is expressed in gender inequality in the economy and employment and in the distribution of social benefits.

The greatest danger of the negative impact of gender stereotypes at various levels of society's life is the possibility of gender prejudices and sexism arising on their soil. Gender prejudices, defined as unjustifiably negative attitudes towards a group or person based on their gender, contain an element of willingness to act in accordance with established gender stereotypes.

How strong are gender stereotypes in today's world? In general, the spread of democratic ideas, feminist and women's movements, as well as the intensification of gender studies in the academic environment, have jointly influenced the weakening of the most severe prejudices regarding gender. However, despite the ongoing changes, traditional gender stereotypes continue to exist and exert their lasting influence. The complexity of changing old stereotypes is connected, according to A.V. Merenkov, with the "law of conservation of stereotypes", under the action of which traditional gender stereotypes are reproduced "through such elements of spiritual life as traditions, customs, the system of education, upbringing, even when the material conditions of human life that gave rise to them have already changed significantly."

The listed "elements of spiritual life" are an integral part of a person's life in society, so it is more appropriate to talk about the weakening of traditional gender stereotypes, and not about their complete change or destruction. One of the ways to weaken rigid stereotyped attitudes towards gender is the formation of tolerance, sensitivity to diversity, and otherness in modern society.

Thus, modern young researchers are faced with a daunting task: to explore not just gender stereotypes, but the internal mechanisms that give rise to them, the knowledge of which will, if not weaken, then partly “soften” their influence and impact on the consciousness and subconscious of people.

From my point of view, this process is long and painful, since the center of gravity of modern values can shift not only for society as a whole, but also for each of its members in particular. At this stage, only the surface layer of this problem will be affected. It is necessary to involve not only linguists in the study, but also scientists from other areas - neurolinguistics, psychology, etc.

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Consider first the concept itself GENDER STEREOTYPE(as defined by A.V. Merenkov) - stable programs of perception, goal-setting, as well as human behavior, depending on the norms and rules of life of representatives of a certain sex accepted in a given culture.

Societies often referred to as "primitive" or even "primitive" had a developed system of female and male roles, as well as complex rites and traditions of designating male and female. Men and women were strictly distinguished in their clothing, jewelry, body painting style, etc. To include the younger generation in the system of gender-role division of labor, complex rites of initiation were developed - transformation into a “man” or “woman”.

However, even in a society regulated by rituals, not everything is so simple. First, male and female roles (and with them ideas about what the bearer of each of them should do and what to be) varied significantly from one community to another.

Anthropologist Margaret Mead drew attention to this. In "Sex and Temperament" (1935), she examined the features of social stereotypes regarding typically male and typically female properties among several tribes of New Guinea. As a result of the study, it was found that among the Arapesh tribe, both men and women, female roles prevailed and female character traits were valued. They worked together and raised children. Both the men and women of the second tribe - the Mundugomors - were distinguished by militancy and aggressiveness, and the men of the tribe could marry their daughters, and mothers - with their sons. Among the representatives of the Tchambuli tribe, gender roles were distributed opposite to what we are used to: women fished, were engaged in weaving, traded; men decorated themselves and considered festive ceremonies (FOOTNOTE: Mid M. Culture and World of Childhood. M., 1988).

Secondly, in this society there were people who did not fit into a strict gender-role division. Thus, in Igor Kon's book "Moonlight at Dawn" (1997), examples of the institution of people of the "middle", or "intermediate" sex, common among 113 tribes of North America, the peoples of Siberia and the Far East (Chukchi, Aleuts, etc.) , Indonesia, Africa.

Major gender group stereotypes

All gender stereotypes can be divided into three groups:

First - stereotypes of masculinity / femininity (or femininity). In other words, they are called stereotypes. masculinity / femininity. Let us first consider what the concepts of masculinity (masculinity) and femininity (femininity) mean. (Further on, these two pairs of concepts are used in the text as synonymous: masculinity - masculinity, femininity - femininity). Based on the analysis of the meaning of the term "masculinity", given by I.S. Kohn, one can describe the meanings attached to the concepts of femininity and masculinity as follows:

The concepts of masculinity and femininity denote mental and behavioral properties and traits that are “objectively inherent” (in the words of I. Kohn) to men (masculinity) or women (femininity).

The concepts of masculinity and femininity contain various social representations, opinions, attitudes, etc. about what men and women are, and what qualities are attributed to them.

The concepts of masculinity and femininity reflect the normative standards of the ideal man and ideal woman.

Second group gender stereotypes is associated with the consolidation of certain social roles in the family, professional and other spheres. Women, as a rule, are assigned family roles (mothers, mistresses, wives) as the main ones, and professional roles for men. As I.S. Kletsina notes, “men are usually evaluated by professional success, and women by the presence of a family and children.”

Third group gender stereotyping reflects the differences between men and women in certain types of work. Thus, men are assigned occupations and professions in the instrumental sphere of activity, which, as a rule, has a creative or constructive character, and women - in the expressive sphere, which is distinguished by a performing or service character. Therefore, the opinion about the existence of so-called "male" and "female" professions is widespread.

The peculiarity of stereotypes is such that they penetrate so firmly into the subconscious that it is very difficult not only to overcome them, but also to realize them in general. Speaking of stereotypes, we can draw an analogy with an iceberg, only a small part of which is on the surface, which makes it extremely dangerous and destructive. Stereotypes have a no less detrimental effect on all areas of our lives, and especially on relationships with others. They are barriers to our happiness and we are all, to a greater or lesser extent, their hostages. Stereotypes are individual or mass. Stereotypes of mass consciousness are the biggest barrier to establishing gender equality in our society.

So, what are the main gender stereotypes of mass consciousness?

"The business of a woman is the household and the upbringing of children." The so-called theory of three To Nietzsche (Children, kitchen, church). Extremely comfortable and favorite position of the vast majority of men. This stereotype has so firmly penetrated the male consciousness that women who are trying to realize themselves in social work or business are constantly confronted with this stereotype. It is necessary to have a lot of strength to overcome caustic remarks, malicious glances and outright opposition from male colleagues. So, men make a career, realize themselves as individuals and public figures. And we bring up common (please note) children and run a common (again, please note) household, while also working - in unpromising low-paid positions.

"Decision-making is a man's business or" Shut up, woman, your day is March 8 "." Despite the fact that women make up the majority of the population, they still remain excluded from the decision-making process. Today, women make up only 4% of parliamentarians. There are no women among ministers and governors. For the entire period of the existence of the Soviet Union, only one woman, Ekaterina Furtseva, was honored to hold the post of minister (Ministry of Health). So, men make decisions, and women are forced to accept their consequences. Is it fair? The laws of Hammurabi, adopted by the king of Babylon in the 18th century BC, said: "A woman must constantly be dependent on her men due to her own stupidity: a father in childhood, a husband in maturity and a son in old age." How many centuries have passed, and how little has changed!

"A woman without a man is an inferior member of society." A very ingrained stereotype. "A decent woman should get married, have children and be like everyone else." Favorite folk stereotype, please note, not folk wisdom. It follows that if a woman is divorced or single, her decency is automatically called into question. We forget that the fate of each person is unique and unrepeatable, and that any person is a self-sufficient person in and of itself. Isn't it time for us to revise the established standards and criteria, who knows when and by whom?

“A man is in every way stronger and more adaptable than a woman.” However, the harsh realities of the 20th century proved otherwise. Wars, famines and revolutions have shown that women are more resilient than men. They survived such blood loss, in which men inevitably died. In besieged Leningrad, more women survived than men. And today the female age is longer, women are less likely to suffer from cardiovascular diseases, less likely to get cancer, and more successfully resist adverse environmental factors. In fact, men are more vulnerable than women. The loneliness of men is more global than that of women. In loneliness, a woman can be comforted by children, family, the need to take care of someone. A man can feel lonely suddenly and abruptly for no reason. This is existential loneliness, from which nothing and no one saves.

"Women are fools, bitches, etc." "All men are bastards, bastards, etc." As you understand, the list of unflattering epithets can be continued indefinitely. Hatred of the opposite sex is passed on from generation to generation. These false beliefs are confirmed by examples from personal life and eloquent stories about how Aunt Klava robbed Uncle Vasya to the skin or Petya ruined the life of young Marusa. Such stories are told instead of fairy tales, embellished with details and emotionally colored. Thus, hostility towards the opposite sex enters the subconscious. From childhood, we subconsciously dislike and fear each other. The memory of Aunt Klava and the not-so-good Petya firmly settles in our subconscious. What is the result? Men are subconsciously afraid of women, women of men. You know about our relationship...

In each of us, 2 principles are fighting. On the one hand, we have an attraction to each other, and on the other hand, fear of each other. To drown out his fear of a woman, a man tries to intimidate her. At first, he devalues her, convincing himself that she means nothing to him. Physical force is sometimes used for this. Here are the roots of domestic violence.

"They're all the same." Awesome stereotype. Once or several times faced with someone's inappropriate behavior, we draw conclusions about half of humanity. We put on dark glasses, and everything really appears before us in a dark and gloomy light. And we continue to be afraid. And what? We are so accustomed to living in fear that we cannot imagine our lives without it. In addition, we are extremely lazy to take off our glasses and see the opposite sex without them. And we are also cowardly, what if everyone is really different, because then we will have to find an individual approach to everyone and build relationships DIFFERENT from those that were before.

Said emphatically neutral: "New gender choices are possible for Facebook users in the US."

Some details are reported by the BBC: the Internet giant has worked with LGBT activists for all naming options, gender identity can be kept secret (for limited access).

It is also not yet known when the 54 new gender identity options will become available to Facebook users outside the US.

Finally, in the "page management" section, it will be possible to set not the standard "he / she" address, but a neutral one, for example, "it".

There is no professional translation of all 54 “sex variations” into Russian yet. Space for creativity. So, the version from RussianRealty.ru:

1. Agender - asexual
2. Androgyne - androgen, hermaphrodite (male female)
3. Androgynous - masculine (internally, according to feelings)
4. Bigender - who feel like a man or a woman at different times
5 Cis - Latin. "pre-", i.e. "under-" (no negative connotation)
6. Cis Female - pre-female, non-female
7. Cis Male - pre-male, non-male
8. Cis Man
9. Cis Woman - pre-woman, under-woman
10. Cisgender - presexual, non-sexual
11. Cisgender Female
12. Cisgender Male
13. Cisgender Man
14. Cisgender Woman - presexual woman, non-sexual woman
15. Female to Male - from female to male
16. FTM - a woman, surgically, outwardly, who took on the appearance of a man
17. Gender Fluid - unstable, "fluid"
18. Gender Nonconforming
19. Gender Questioning
20. Gender Variant
21. Genderqueer - your own special, original
22. Intersex - intersexual
23. Male to Female - from a man to a woman
24. MTF - a man, surgically, externally, who took the form of a woman
25. Neither - neither one nor the other (of two traditional)
26. Neutrois - seeking to eliminate sexual characteristics in appearance
27. Non-binary - denying the system of two sexes
28. Other - other
29. Pangender - general sexual
30. Trans - transitional to another sex
31. Trans Female - transitional to a female sexual state
32. Trans Male - transitional to the male sexual state
33. Trans Man - transitional to a man
34. Trans Person - transitional to a person, outside of gender classification
35. Trans Woman - transitional to a woman
36. Trans (asterisk) - transitional to the other sex (* - with secrecy)
37. Trans(asterisk)Female - transitional to the female sexual state (*)
38. Trans (asterisk) Male - transitional to male sexual state (*)
39. Trans (asterisk) Man - transitional to a man (*)
40. Trans (asterisk) Person - transitional to a person, outside the gender classification (*)
41. Trans(asterisk)Woman - transitional to a woman (*)
42. Transexual - transsexual
43. Transexual Female - female transsexual
44. Transexual Male - male transsexual
45. Transexual Man - a transsexual man
46. Transexual Person
47. Transexual Woman - a transsexual woman
48. Transgender Female
49. Transgender Male
50. Transgender Man
51. Transgender Person
52. Transgender Woman
53. Transmasculine - "beyond the male" (fantasies about the male sex)
54. Two-spirit

It has not yet been possible to confidently understand the differences between transsexuals and transgenders. Our apologies for possible errors. It is also strange that Transmasculine was left without a partner, obviously Transwoman, Transfeminism or Transfemale. Well, probably, the list of genders could be given in full, including Man and Woman - a man and a woman.

The ratio of types of gender relations and gender

characteristics

Table 1

Levels of gender analysis relations	gender relations	Subjective determinants of gender relations
Macro level: relations like "groups of men and women - the state"	Public	Gender representations
Mesolevel: group-group relationships (relationships between groups of men and women)	Intergroup	Gender stereotypes
Micro level: personality-personality relationships (interpersonal relationships between representatives of different sexes)	interpersonal	Gender Attitudes
Intrapersonal level: relationships like "I as an individual - I as a representative of a gender group"	self-attitude	Gender Identity

Gender relations are built into a wide social context and manifest themselves at different levels of society, these are: 1) socially organized relations at the level of society, between representatives of the state and gender groups; 2) relations between different gender groups; 3) relations between subjects of different sexes; 4) the attitude of the individual to himself as a representative of a certain gender.

The use of the main ideas of the socio-constructionist direction in the study of gender allows, Firstly, to suggest a more active role of the socio-psychological characteristics of a person or group as subjects of multi-level relations. Gender representations, stereotypes, attitudes and identity of a person or group act not only as derivatives and determinants of gender relations, but they can play the role of relationship builders, constructing and creating their specific behavioral models and patterns. Secondly, allows you to highlight the specific grounds for constructing gender relations. Such grounds, characteristic of all levels of gender relations, are: polarization, differentiation of the positions of men and women as representatives of two gender groups, phenomena of inequality, dominance, power, subordination. Since these phenomena are emphasized in the social constructivist paradigm, one can differentiation of roles and statuses men and women and hierarchy, subordination of their positions considered as the main parameters of the analysis of gender relations.

The whole variety of meaningful characteristics of intersexual relations can be reduced to two alternative models: partnership and dominant-dependent models of relationships. The first model is partnerships- characterized by the orientation of the participants in the interaction to harmonize the goals, interests and positions of each other. The opposite model dominant-dependent relationship model- does not imply equality of positions: one side occupies a dominant position, the other - a subordinate, dependent one.

In paragraph 2.3."Groups of men and women as subjects of gender relations" describes the psychological characteristics of gender groups as large social groups. Based on the analysis of the work of domestic social psychologists - specialists in the field of studying large social groups (Andreeva G.M., 1996; Bogomolova N.N. et al., 2002; Diligensky G.G., 1975), a list of parameters was identified, in accordance which revealed the characteristics of gender groups, namely: 1) general characteristics of gender groups; 2) psychological structure of the gender group; 3) the ratio of the psyche of individual individuals included in the gender group, with elements of group psychology; 4) characterization of the position and status of the gender group in society.

The result of the analysis common characteristics of gender groups a descriptive definition of this socio-psychological phenomenon appeared. Gender groups can be defined as stable socio-psychological communities of people whose members, realizing themselves as men and women, share and represent the norms of gender-specific behavior.

Analysis of literature revealing the psychological structure of the gender group as a large social group, as well as considering the issue of correlation of the psyche of individual members of the gender group with group-wide socio-psychological characteristics led to the conclusion that the groups of men and women in terms of psychological make-up, although not identical to each other, are not polar opposites either. Their psychological profiles are more similar than different. Gender differences are not as great as is commonly believed (Libin A.V., 1999; Maccoby E.E. & Jacklin C.N., 1974; Deaux K., 1985; Baron R., Richardson D., 1997; Bern S., 2001; Craig G ., 2000; Hyde J., 1984; Lott B., 1990; Montuori A.A., 1989; Bee H. L. & Mitchel S.K., 1984). Differences between the sexes have been identified in certain verbal and spatial abilities, and studies of gender differences in emotions, empathy, aggression, altruism, and the ability to influence others have shown that the differences are not stable, since they largely depend on gender norms, prescriptions, and social expectations. Based on these data, it is hardly possible to assert the existence of a special male and female psychology, it is more correct from a scientific point of view to speak about the totality of personality traits (masculinity and femininity) inherent in groups of men and women, and it is necessary to emphasize the fact of the formation of these characteristics in the process of gender socialization of individuals.

For characteristics of the position and status of groups of men and women in society criteria are used: position in the income hierarchy and as a consequence, the ways and forms of consumption of available material and social goods (way of life) and power(hierarchy of relations of political and economic influence of groups on each other). Use of statistical data given in the works of Sillaste GG, 2000; Moor S.M., 1999; Aivazova S.G., 2002; Rzhanitsyna L., 1998; Kalabikhina I.E., 1995; Kochkina E.V., 1999 and others, clearly indicates that women as a social group do not have equal opportunities with men in realizing their needs and interests in a number of areas of social life; as subjects and objects of gender relations, they are more likely than men to face discrimination and violence. The presented comparative data of the social status of two social communities - men and women clearly demonstrate the fact of the lower status of the female group. In accordance with the theory of the social construction of gender, the recognition of the construction of gender as a relationship of power interaction raises the question of changing this type of relationship.

In paragraph 2.4."Methods and techniques for researching gender relations" a description of the methods and techniques used in the study of the psychological component of gender relations is given. The choice of methods was determined by the following conditions: Firstly, research methods should be adequate to each of the four identified levels of relationships: macro -, meso -, micro, and the level of self-attitude of the individual. Secondly, methods of each of the levels of research should be differentiated into methods of two groups: 1) with which you can explore the objective side of the relationship, i.e. diagnose existing practices and models of relationships at each level; 2) methods by which you can explore the subjective side of gender relations, presented in the determinants of gender relations, i.e. to diagnose gender representations, gender stereotypes, gender attitudes and gender identity of the subjects of gender relations.

To study the objective side of gender relations, the following were used: semi-structured interview "Gender Relations in Russia", questionnaire "Qualities of men and women", unfinished sentences "Gender behavior in conflict", Thomas questionnaire "Type of behavior in conflict", T. Leary questionnaire, California personality questionnaire. The subjective component of gender relations was studied using: unfinished sentences "Men and women", the questionnaire "Gender characteristics", the questionnaire "Distribution of family responsibilities", the questionnaire "Who am I?", the questionnaire "Life path and work". Interviews and methods of incomplete sentences represented a group of qualitative research methods, questionnaires and questionnaires - a group of quantitative research methods.

The structure of the material presented from chapters 3 to 6 is set by the concept of researching gender relations, according to which, at each of the four levels of analysis, both the objective and subjective aspects of the manifestation of gender relations are considered (Tables 2 and 3).

Chapter 3. "Gender Relations in the Context of the Socio-Cultural Organization of Society" devoted to the study of gender relations between social groups of men and women and society (the state).

Section 3.1. "Gender relations in the "group-society" system".Subjects of gender relations functioning at the macro level are, on the one hand, groups of men and women as large social groups (gender groups), and on the other hand, the state as a social institution that regulates gender relations at the legislative and executive levels. The manifestation of gender relations on the part of the state is reflected in the social policy in relation to gender groups, which is developed by state structures and is set by the gender ideology that dominates in society.

Relations between the state and each of the gender groups are built on the basis of this policy. The specificity of the manifestation of gender relations finds expression in the social roles of men and women as members of society, these roles are defined as gender.

The objective side of gender relations

table 2

	Subjects gender relations	The specificity of the manifestations of gender relations on the part of each of the participants in the relationship	Forms of manifestation (phenomena) gender relations	Models of gender relations

macro level	State	Social policy in relation to gender groups, which is set by the dominant gender ideology in society	gender contract. In the Soviet period, the dominant contract for women was the "contract of a working mother", for men - "a worker - a warrior-defender". Currently, the range of gender contracts has been expanded	Dominant-dependent model of gender relations (the dominant position is occupied by the state, and groups of men and women are subordinate)
		Social roles of men and women as members of society
Mesolevel	group of women	Specific practices of interaction are formed under the influence of generalized images of men and women fixed in the minds of subjects	The phenomenon of gender inequality in the professional sphere (“horizontal and vertical professional segregation”)	Dominant-dependent model of relations (the dominant position is occupied by a group of men, and a group of women - a subordinate)
	group of men
Micro level		The nature of the distribution of roles and power in interpersonal relationships	The phenomenon of sex-role differentiation. This phenomenon manifests itself most clearly in marital relations.	Dominant-dependent model (the dominant position is more often occupied by a woman, and a man - a subordinate). Partnership model (none of the partners takes a dominant and subordinate position)

Intrapersonal level	Identity substructures: "I am an individual"	The gender context of self-relationship is revealed through an analysis of the correlation of the external, social assessment received by a person in the process of interacting with other people, and his own assessment of himself as a bearer of gender characteristics and the subject of gender-specific roles.	Intrapersonal gender conflicts: role conflict of a working woman, conflict of fear of success, existential-gender conflict. Crisis of gender identity: crisis of masculinity in men, crisis of dual identity in women	Self-attitude model: non-conflict (positive) and conflict (negative) attitude towards oneself as a representative of a certain gender and a subject of gender relations
	“I am as a representative of a gender group”

The subjective side of gender relations

Table 3

Levels analysis	Gender characteristics
	The main content of gender characteristics	Distinctive sign	Typology
macro level	Gender representations are considered as a product of the gender ideology that prevails in a particular society in a certain historical period	Gender perceptions are always linked to the historical and political context	Patriarchal (traditional) and egalitarian gender representations
Meso- level	Gender stereotypes - psychological and behavioral characteristics traditionally attributed to men or women	Gender stereotypes are normative benchmarks for assessing gender characteristics	Traditional and modernized gender stereotypes
Micro- level	Gender Attitudes - subjective readiness to behave in a certain way in a particular role in accordance with one's gender.	Gender attitudes manifest themselves in the nature of the subject's performance of a male or female role.	Traditional and egalitarian gender attitudes
Intra-personal level	Gender Identity - awareness of oneself connected with cultural definitions of masculinity and femininity. This is a multi-level, complex structure, including the main (basic) and peripheral complexes of characteristics.	Masculinity and femininity, as attributes of gender identity, are not natural qualities, but sociocultural constructs	Crisis and non-crisis gender identity

The main activity in relations at the macro level comes from the state, gender groups and their individual representatives more often occupy the positions of not subjects of these relations, but objects. The content of gender relations unfolds against the background of the political and socio-economic context characteristic of a certain period of development of society, and is represented by existing practices of interaction between the state and groups of men and women, as objects of state policy and participants in relations at the macro-social level. Two main types of state gender policy are considered: patriarchal and egalitarian (Aivazova S.G., 2002; Ashvin S., 2000; Khasbulatova O.A., 2001).

This paragraph describes the specifics of the Soviet gender order and the contradictory trends in gender policy in the Soviet era, that is, the manifestation of elements of egalitarian and patriarchal ideology at the same time. The phenomenon of the gender contract is analyzed in detail, as the main forms of manifestation of gender relations(Zdravomyslova E, Temkina A., 1996; Tartakovskaya I.N., 1997; Temkina A.A., Rotkirkh A., 2002; Malysheva M., 1996; Meshcherkina E., 1996; Sinelnikov A., 1999). The dominant contract for women in Soviet society was that of a working mother. , which predetermined three main social roles of women as members of society: "workers", "mothers", "housewives". The gender contract of the Soviet state with the male part of the country is represented by the contract: "worker - warrior-defender", which predetermined two main social roles for men: "worker" and "soldier".

The results of the interview "Gender Relations in Russia" showed that the typical model of gender relations that existed in Soviet Russia corresponds to the theoretical model of "dominant-dependent" relations. In the system of gender relations in the Soviet period, the state occupied a dominant position and played a leading role, while gender groups played a subordinate role. In the post-perestroika period, due to the lack of a clearly defined policy of the state in relation to groups of men and women, it is difficult to single out a typical model of gender relations, however, due to the trend of egalitarianization of gender ideology against the background of the democratization of public life, one can speak of a trend in the development of gender relations in the direction from "dominant- dependent" model to the "partner".

In paragraph 3.2. “The ratio of types of gender representations and models of gender relations in the “group-society” system refers to gender representations as a variety of social representations. To reveal the essence of gender representations, the theory of social representations developed by S. Moskovisi with the participation of such researchers as J. Abric, J. Codol, V. Douaz, D. Jodelet was used.

Gender representations- a network of concepts, views, statements and explanations about the social status and position in society of men and women, due to the social context. Gender representations, being one of the ways of understanding gender relations, act as determinants of these relations at the macro level, they are designed to guide the behavior of men and women in the system of social relations "a group of men or women - society (the state)". Gender representations contain characteristics common to social representations, namely: the presence of images that combine sensual and rational components (“real woman” and “real man”); connection with cultural symbolism (sexual symbolism); the ability to construct the behavior of men and women through normative patterns; the presence of a close connection with the social context, with language and culture. In addition, gender representations also have specific features: they reflect the polarization, differentiation and subordination of “male” and “female” (Shikhirev P., 1999; Modern Philosophical Dictionary, 1998; Voronina O.A., 1998).

Gender representations are considered as a product of the gender ideology that prevails in a particular society in a certain historical period. Based on the two types of gender ideology dominant in society (patriarchal and egalitarian), patriarchal (traditional) And egalitarian gender representations (N.M. Rimashevskaya, N.K. Zakharova, A.I. Posadskaya). The selected typology of gender representations was confirmed in an empirical study using a semi-structured interview "Gender Relations in Russia". One of the interview questions was aimed at finding out the respondents' opinions about typical men and women of three periods: pre-perestroika, perestroika and post-perestroika. Respondents' answers were divided into two groups: traditional and egalitarian ideas. Patriarchal ideas reflect the essence of the traditional gender ideology that it is women, regardless of the social situation in the country, who should bear the burden of household chores and be responsible for the well-being of children, i.e. play the role of mother and hostess. Naturally, the role of the worker was also preserved. For a man, the main social roles are extra-family roles, although in relation to the family, a man must play the role of a breadwinner.

Another type of gender representations was also very common, which related to the characteristics of a typical man during the perestroika period and did not fit into the category of either traditional or egalitarian representations. These are gender representations of the "failed masculinity" of Russian men (Tartakovskaya I., 2003). In the system of traditional gender ideology, a man was expected, first of all, to play the role of a defender of the Fatherland and a worker (worker), while personal ambitions, the desire for leadership, the manifestation of independence and creativity in solving problems were not encouraged, but even extinguished by the collectivist ideology (the desire not to stand out , be like everyone else). The personal qualities and social attitudes necessary for the new social conditions were absent in many men, therefore, during the period of perestroika, many men were unable to fulfill the traditional role of a breadwinner. Men had difficulty adapting to the new social situation, which required a new content of the social role of the worker.

The obtained empirical results on the correlation between the types of gender representations and models of gender relations showed that patriarchal (traditional) gender representations are the determinants of the dominant-dependent model of gender relations.

In chapter 4. "Gender relations in the system of intergroup interaction" From the standpoint of the gender approach, the regularities of the formation and manifestation of relations between groups of men and women are considered.

In paragraph 4.1. "Gender Relations in Intergroup Interaction" the content of such approaches to the study of intergroup interaction as: motivational (Z.Freud, A.Adorno), situational (M.Sheriff), cognitive (G.Tejfel), activity (V.S.Ageev) approaches are considered. The specificity of the socio-psychological analysis of intergroup relations is emphasized, which consists in focusing on the problem of relations that arise in the course of interaction between groups as an internal, psychological category; in other words, the focus is not so much on intergroup processes and phenomena in themselves, but on the internal reflection of these processes, i.e. cognitive sphere associated with various aspects of intergroup interaction (G.M. Andreeva, V.S. Ageev).

At the level of intergroup interaction, the analysis of gender relations was carried out in the system of relations between groups of homogeneous gender, i.e. subjects of gender relations are a group of men and a group of women. Specificity of manifestations of gender relations on the part of each of the participants in the relationship is given by the general socio-psychological patterns of intergroup interaction and consists in considering the generalized images of men and women that exist in the minds of the subjects of gender relations, as well as in determining the influence of these images on the actual practices of interaction between gender groups.

Analysis of the results of the study of the perception of groups of men and women (V.S. Ageev, H. Goldberg, A.V. Libin, I.S. Kletsina, N.L. Smirnova, J. Williams and D. Best) showed that the characteristics of men and women, as subjects of gender relations, are not only differentiated, but also hierarchically organized, i.e. the characteristics that make up the male image are more positive, socially acceptable and encouraged. Based on the phenomenon of intra-group favoritism, women should evaluate their group more positively than the group of men. However, the empirical results obtained do not fit into this pattern: both women and men in the process of intergroup perception attribute more positive characteristics to the representatives of the male group than to the representatives of the female group. The reason for this is the difference in the social status of gender groups. In the system of socio-psychological knowledge, the lower social status of women encourages them to manifest the phenomenon of not in-group, but out-of-group favoritism. (Dontsov A.I., Stefanenko T.G., 2002). In the system of gender-oriented knowledge, this fact is explained by the influence of patterns that operate not at the level of intergroup interaction, but at the level of functioning of the macrostructure. We are talking about the influence of a special type of cultural traditions - androcentrism 2 (O.A. Voronina, T.A. Klimenkova, K. Gilligan, D. Matsumoto, N. Ris). Under the influence of generalized images of men and women, differing in such characteristics as integrity, uniformity, stability, conservatism, models of intersexual relations are formed.

Forms of manifestation of gender relations in intergroup interaction. ABOUT A feature of the analysis of gender relations at this level is that the interacting men and women are considered not as separate individuals and individuals, but as representatives of social (gender) groups. With this type of interaction, individual differences are leveled, and behavior is unified within a particular gender group. The most common classification of situations, where individual differences between interacting subjects are less significant than in interpersonal relationships, includes two types of situations: short-term socio-situational communication ( social role) And business interaction (Kunitsyna V.N., Kazarinova N.V., Pogolsha V.M., 2001). A vivid example of the manifestation of gender relations in the business sphere is the phenomenon of “horizontal and vertical professional segregation”. The content of this phenomenon was discussed in paragraph 2.3., when the characteristics of the position and status of groups of men and women in society were considered.

The theoretical and empirical study of the problem of gender relations at the level of intergroup interaction allows us to say that in this system of gender relations the main model is dominant-dependent relationship model, and the dominant role is occupied by a group of men. The most clearly dominant position of men is manifested in a situation of conflict non-personalized inter-gender interaction (the results were obtained in the author's study using the method of incomplete sentences "Gender behavior in conflict" and the Thomas questionnaire "Type of behavior in conflict").

Section 4.2. "The ratio of types of gender stereotypes and models of interaction between gender groups" is devoted to the study of gender stereotypes, which are socio-psychological determinants of intersexual relations in intergroup interaction. Gender stereotypes were considered as normative models existing in the minds of people regarding the behavior and psychological characteristics of men and women. These simplified and schematic models help a person to systematize information about men and women not as individuals, but as representatives of large social groups. The typology, characteristics, functions, conditions for the emergence and possibilities of changing gender stereotypes are considered. Characteristics of gender stereotypes (consistency, schematic and simplistic, emotional and evaluative load, stability and rigidity, inaccuracy) were revealed using the works of V.S. Ageev, G.M. Andreeva, A.I. Dontsov, T.G. .S.Kon, A.V.Libin, D.Matsumoto, I.R.Sushkov, J.Turner, A.Tajfel, K.Deaux, J. Hyde, E.E.Maccoby, C.N.Jacklin and others.

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